jade, jadeite, fei cui, Central America, Guatemala, gems, turquoise

Jade was a mineral of peculiar significance for the peoples of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica and especially for the Maya, whose civilization flourished in the Yucatán Peninsula through most of the first millennium A.D., to whom it was “the precious stone of grace, the first infinite grace,” its green color making it an allegorical metaphor of young corn, of flowing water, of life itself (Thompson 1950). At the time of Conquest, jade was also important to the Aztecs, who distinguished several types (Foshag 1955): chalchihuitl, which may be translated “herb-green jewel-stone,” referring to ordinary grades of jade; quetzalitztli, from the iridescent green tail-feathers of the quetzal, a bird of the Maya highlands, probably denoting the finest translucent emerald-green jade; tlilayotic, which may refer to the dark green chloromelanite or to omphacite; and iztaccichalchihuitl, white chalchihuitl, which is most likely to be albitic jadeite. The first European contact with the material seems to have been in the sixteenth century, when it was noted as being used for axes in Amazonia, and the word itself is of Spanish etymology, from piedra de ijada—“colic stone”—because of its reputed medicinal properties among some groups of Indians in South America. The term “nephrite” for one mineralogical variety of jade was coined from this by Latinization. After the exhaustion of the current stock of precious jades in Mesoamerica following the conquest, the stone ceased to have any importance for the Spaniards; and the jade best known to later European society was the nephrite from Sinkiang worked in China from Han times onwards and, latterly, Burmese jadeite. Mesoamerican jade sources have remained unworked and mainly unknown to the present day, although the rising value of the raw material is leading to renewed exploitation.

gems, corundum, synthetic corundum.7, synthetic quartz, synthetic opal, synthetic emerald, synthetic diamond

The father of crystal fabrication technology is A. Verneuil with his flame-fusion growth method 1902. His principles of nucleation and growth control are adapted in most later growth methods from melt. The Czochralski method was essentially developed by Teal, Little and Dash. The multidisciplinary nature of crystal growth and epitaxy technology and the complex multiparameter processes, and also the scaling problem, have impeded the scientific development of this important area. Only recently it was possible to solve the striation problem and to understand the control of epitaxial growth modes for achieving structurally perfect layers of GaAs and high-Tc superconductors with atomically flat surfaces. The formation of crystal growth and epitaxy engineers and scientists as well as centers of excellence are necessary in order to develop crystal and epilayer fabrication technologies required for development of highest-efficiency white light-emitting diodes and photovoltaic solar cells for energy-saving lighting and as alternative source of energy. Also laser-fusion energy and other high technologies have to wait for progress in crystal growth technology.

corundum, history.1, India.12, gems, Indian lapidary

From ancient times, India has been renowned as a land of jewels and the principal source of precious stones. This paper seeks to explore, through ancient Indian sources, the extent of knowledge Indians possessed about precious stones in antiquity—the types of gems mentioned in these texts, and how such knowledge traveled beyond India’s borders to other parts of the ancient world, ultimately reaching the classical authors who have preserved it into modern times. A preliminary question arises: what qualifies as a “precious stone” in these contexts? While there is no universally fixed definition, stones have traditionally been classified based on qualities such as color, brilliance, hardness, durability, and rarity—though these criteria have evolved over time. A select group of more valuable minerals came to be known simply as precious stones (gemmae), while those similar in nature but of lesser value were labeled semi-precious (lapides pretiosi). Diamonds, emeralds, sapphires, and rubies typically fall into the precious category, while opals, topaz, hyacinth, and others—known in both Latin and Sanskrit—are usually considered semi-precious.

corundum, ruby, sapphire, quality.10, tajikistan.12, spinel, beryl, emerald, gems

Sinkankas: This large and handsome volume, crafted from high-quality materials, is possibly the most beautiful book ever produced on crown jewels and stands as the first comprehensive study of the vast treasure owned by the rulers of Iran. It gains authority and distinction through its expert authors—Meen, a specialist in gemstones, and Tushingham, an archaeologist—whose combined expertise lends weight to the work. The Iranian collection is particularly rich in large, high-quality emeralds, diamonds, rubies, and spinels, many of which remain unset, while others adorn crowns and ceremonial objects such as pins, armbands, swords, garments, furniture, containers, and table ornaments. Notably, the book features the first scientific analysis of the Darya-i Nur and Nur ul-Ain diamonds, along with other massive unset gems, including a 590-carat red spinel now recognized as the largest of its kind in existence. Historical references drawn from the travel accounts of Jean Chardin, Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, and later visitors to the Persian Court are skillfully woven into the narrative to support or corroborate the legendary histories of specific gems. The text also includes extensive scientific and logical data—such as mineralogical confirmations, physical constants, and precise measurements—often determined through ingenious remote examination techniques, as direct handling was frequently prohibited by the authorities.

gems, beryl, emerald, synthetic emerald

Large single crystals of synthetic emerald have been grown by both hydrothermal and molten flux techniques. The synthetic hydrothermal emeralds are of excellent quality comparable to the finest natural gemstones from Colombia and the Ural Mountains.

emeralds, Colombia, gems

Sinkankas: The text is in four parts, with the first treating legends and lore and much on the emerald as it was known to the pre-Conquest Indians in the Muzo region, emeralds elsewhere in the world, famous jewels and gems employing emerald, including remarks on the famous “Patricia” crystal now in the American Museum of Natural History in New York, and other generalities. The second part is a chronology of events from the first appearance of Spaniards on the scene, their attempts to find the deposits, subsequent discoveries and mining, and further events into the present. Part three describes the administration of the mines by the Banco de la República from the 1940s up to now, with much information on the mines, decrees, regulations, production statistics, etc., on Muzo and other emerald mines in Colombia. Also in this part is material on synthetic emeralds, properties and values of same, beryllium resources in Colombia, drawings of emerald crystal forms and cutting styles, properties of cut gems, the formation of emerald, composition, “gemelos” or “trapiches,” the lapidary industry, etc. The last part reproduces important geological and mineralogical documents concerning the deposits, including some by Miguel Gutierrez, Robert Scheibe, Peter W. Rainier, Miguel Alvarez Uribe, Roberto Wokittel, H. Bürgl, E. Hubach, Hernan Restropo, and E. Nicholls. Works by Scheibe, Rainier, Restropo, and Wokittel are described under their names. The text also gives short biographies of Scheibe, Wokittel, Fritz Klein, and Barriga Villalba. The author was in a position of authority in the Banco de la República which enabled him to construct with unparalleled accuracy historical portions of the present work with the best yet information on the Colombian emerald mining industry. Unfortunately, not as much attention has been paid to assembling information on the mineralogy and parageneses noted in the deposits nor to compare views on the vexing problem of their origin.

corundum, history.1, gems, jade, Fischer-Other, Rome, ancient gems, glyptic

This volume contains Books 36 and 37 of Pliny the Elder’s Natural History, with the Latin text and D. E. Eichholz’s English translation on facing pages. Book 36 deals principally with stones and their uses in architecture and sculpture, including celebrated works in marble, notable buildings and monuments, obelisks, pyramids, and accounts of various building and ornamental stones. Book 37 is devoted largely to gemstones and other precious materials and is particularly important for the history of gemology. Pliny discusses the origins, properties, varieties, uses, values, and supposed virtues of numerous gems, including rock crystal, amber, diamond (adamas), emerald (smaragdus), beryl, opal, sardonyx, amethyst, carbuncle and other stones, while also recording methods of testing, imitating, and falsifying gems. He draws extensively upon earlier Greek and Roman authorities and combines observations of trade, mining, craftsmanship, collecting, and connoisseurship with the mineralogical and medicinal beliefs of antiquity. Book 37 concludes the Natural History and provides one of the most extensive surviving ancient accounts of gemstones, making it a fundamental primary source for the study of gemology and the gem trade in the classical world. Book 1: table of contents of the others and of authorities; 2: mathematical and metrological survey of the universe; 3–6: geography and ethnography of the known world; 7: anthropology and the physiology of man; 8–11: zoology; 12–19: botany, agriculture, and horticulture; 20–27: plant products as used in medicine; 28–32: medical zoology; 33–37: minerals (and medicine), the fine arts, and gemstones.

gems, beryl, emerald, Colombia, Muzo, Chivor, Cosquez

Restrepo presents a reconnaissance study of the Muzo and Coscuez emerald mines in Boyacá, intended to provide a basis for more detailed geological investigation and systematic prospecting. The emerald-bearing rocks are described as strongly folded Lower Albian black pyritic shales cut by numerous fractures, chiefly filled with crystalline to white calcite, within the fault-bounded Muzo–Coscuez horst. Emerald and other beryl are regarded as primary minerals occurring within calcite-filled fractures and druses; emerald-bearing fractures are generally 2–10 cm wide, and emerald constitutes less than 1% by weight of their contents. Restrepo considers three possible origins for the mineralizing solutions: magmatic pegmatitic solutions, solutions produced by ultrametamorphism or anatexis, and pneumatolytic-metasomatic solutions, without selecting one conclusively. He proposes a paragenetic sequence in which quartz, feldspar, beryl (emerald and morralla), possible parisite, apatite, fluorite, and mica are primary, followed by secondary replacement minerals including calcite, dolomite, barite, and pyrite, and later oxidation products. Published measurements of Muzo emeralds are reviewed, including refractive indices ranging approximately from 1.564 to 1.598 and chemical analyses, while chromium and vanadium are discussed as possible causes of the green color. The report also describes contemporary open-pit mining and hand recovery of emeralds, considers the possibility of recovering microscopic beryl from waste by flotation, and recommends detailed geological, mineralogical, petrological, structural, and mining investigations to improve exploration of the Muzo–Coscuez district.

beryl, emerald, Austria, gems

corundum, history.1, gems

The history of jewelry has closely paralleled the history of mankind. Used as amulets to protect against harm and worn for ceremonial occasions, jewels also signaled wealth, power, and position. This engrossing scholarly study by a noted English antiquarian offers a splendid account of jewelry styles over a 700-year period — from the early Middle Ages and Gothic period, through the Renaissance as well as the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries. Drawing on a number of vital sources — museums and private collections, evidence given by portrait painters, surviving designs for jewels and others — the author gives us not only a comprehensive chronicle of the jewels themselves but also their relation to costume and fashion and their reflection of changing social values. Enhancing the meticulously detailed narrative are 400 photographs and illustrations depicting, among scores of other pieces, a gold heart-shaped brooch inscribed with You are my earthly joy," dating from the fifteenth century; a gold brooch set with sapphires, emeralds, and pearls; a diamond and topaz necklace (c. 1760); a gold padlock, set with cornelian and pearls (c. 1800); a gilt bronze clasp (c. 1200); the silver Loch Buy Brooch, set with rock crystals and pearls (sixteenth century), and a thirteenth-century reliquary pendant of the Holy Thorn. For anyone interested in the long and fascinating history of handcrafted jewelry, here is a superb sourcebook of extremely rare ornamentation, a rich and detailed study that will also appeal to fashion and costume historians, collectors, and lovers of antiques."