gems, Arabic mineralogy, al-Biruni

Reviews al-Bīrūnī’s life, scholarly travels and major writings, emphasizing his contributions to astronomy, mathematics, geography, chronology and the study of India. Particular attention is given to the Qānūn al-Masʿūdī, including its treatment of astronomical observations, calendars and geographical measurement. The article highlights his critical use of earlier sources and insistence on reliable observations, while briefly noting his works on mineralogy and medicinal substances.