gems, gemology, basic gemology, advanced gemology, gem testing, spectroscopy, chemistry, chemical analysis, corundum, X-ray diffraction

One of the fundamental tasks in a modern gemological laboratory is identifying the species of a gemstone. Laboratories apply many different approaches, from routine methods used for almost every gemstone to more advanced techniques on a case-by-case basis. While standard gemological testing can accurately identify the most common gemstone species, additional testing is often required for unusual or rare stones. Two advanced analytical tools for phase identification are reviewed in this article: Raman spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction. Both methods harness photon scattering to characterize the atomic-scale structures of materials. Raman spectroscopy relies on inelastic light scattering from crystal lattice or molecular vibrations. X-ray diffraction relies on constructive interference of X-rays “reflected” from regularly spaced atomic layers of a crystal lattice. In addition to identifying mineral species, these techniques can capture information about composition, degree of crystallinity, strain, and other factors that affect a material’s structure. The applications of these techniques are summarized first, followed by technical details regarding the underlying physics and instrumentation.