gems, lapis lazuli, Afghanistan, history of gemology, gem trade, Central Asia

The entry surveys lapis lazuli in the ancient Near East, beginning with the Sumerian ZA.GÌN and Akkadian uqnû, and considers its identification, terminology, sources, trade, archaeological occurrence, and uses. Lapis lazuli was an imported and highly valued material in Mesopotamia, occurring from very early periods and employed for beads, seals, inlays, amulets, vessels, and other prestigious objects; it also acquired important religious, magical, and literary associations. The discussion considers the problem of determining the geographical sources of ancient Near Eastern lapis lazuli, with Badakhshan in Afghanistan regarded as the principal probable source, and places the stone within the extensive long-distance exchange networks connecting Mesopotamia with Iran and regions farther east.