gems, ancient gemology, ancient jewelry, early metallurgy, ancient mining, firesetting, flint, pigment, copper, silver, lead, India, Europe, Egypt, Western Asia, Iran, tin mining Tajikistan, zinc

The role of firesetting—used for millennia as the primary technique for extracting raw materials from hard rock prior to the advent of black powder—is examined through scientific analysis of its effects, alongside historical and archaeological evidence demonstrating when and how fire was applied in various contexts; given the limited data from the Near East, examples from prehistoric Europe and the Middle and Far East are included to provide a fuller understanding.