gems, archaeology, archaeogemology, Central Asia, Afghanistan, lapis lazuli, quartz, chalcedony, beryl, aquamarine, agate, dyed agate, carnelian, amethyst, bibliography

The relic deposits contain sixty-one hard stone (Mohs’ scale of 7 or more) and ten lapis lazuli beads. These beads were found in relic caskets with other offerings or associated with relic deposits in stupas in three areas, Darunta, Hadda and Wardak. The date range of coins associated with these deposits is between the 1st and early 6th century AD. The materials of six hard stone beads were analysed by Louise Joyner, using Raman Microscopy and X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy (Table 3.3–4, 10, 13, 16, 19). The remaining beads were identified on the basis of colour and texture by Margaret Sax and Elizabeth Errington. The majority of the hard stone beads (50 out of 61) belong to the quartz family. They include both macro-crystalline varieties of quartz and micro-crystalline varieties of quartz, the former commonly being transparent (rock crystal, amethyst), and the latter being translucent or opaque (agate, carnelian, chalcedony, jasper) (Sax 1996). Other hard-stone beads in the Masson collection are composed of beryl (aquamarine) and garnet (pyrope). In order to investigate the cultural contexts in which the beads existed before they were placed as votive offerings in stupas and entered the archaeological record, a study was made of thirty-three hard stone and lapis lazuli beads from the three areas mentioned above (Table 4). The beads were selected to include all the raw materials and a variety of bead forms. The morphology of each bead was recorded, their dimensions were measured using a digital caliper, and the external surfaces were examined for tool marks and evidence of use wear, both visually and by optical microscopy. In order to examine the internal surfaces of the beads, detailed moulds were made of the perforations using silicone dental material (hydrophillic vinyl polysiloxane) and the moulds were examined by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) (Kenoyer 2016a). Our observations provided evidence for various stages of their manufacture: the methods used to shape, smooth, polish and perforate the beads. They also provided tentative indications of use wear. The morphology of the beads, the characteristics of their external and internal surfaces and our interpretations are summarized in Table 5. Further details are discussed below. This paper contains an excellent bibliography on the archaeology, history, geology, gemology, and jewelry of Afghanistan, Central Asia and India.