gems, Central Asia, history, Oriental geography, Badakhshan, ruby, spinel, lapis lazuli

The first English translation of Ibn Ḥawqal’s Masālik al‑Mamālik (“Routes and Realms”), a 10th‑century Arabic geography. Based on manuscripts in Ouseley’s collection, the work surveys lands from North Africa through Persia and Central Asia, describing routes, resources, and cultures. It introduced European readers to Islamic geographical science and provided a foundation for later Orientalist scholarship.