gems, turquoise, Iran, Persia, Nishapur

Geissel describes the celebrated Persian turquoise mines about thirty-five miles from Nishapur in Khorassan, situated at elevations of roughly 5,000–6,000 feet and supporting a mining population of perhaps 1,500 people. The concession covered about forty square miles and included turquoise, salt, and other mines; its lessees directly operated the Reish, Zaki, and Ali Merzai mines while subletting twelve others. Geissel distinguishes underground workings in solid rock from khaki or earth mines in mine debris and rain-washed detritus, and notes evidence that earlier mining had been considerably more systematic, with galleries and shafts for ventilation and lighting. Later miners removed supporting rock wherever turquoise was encountered, causing several important workings to collapse. The Reish mine, then the principal producer, is described in detail: miners descended through a cave and shaft to narrow ledges, while rock and ore were raised in small sheepskin bags by a wooden wheel operated with the feet. Despite its productivity, its turquoise was generally inferior. The collapsed Abdar Rezai mine had formerly yielded the finest material, characterized by deep sky-blue color and unfading luster. Women and children worked the khaki deposits by digging and sorting the earth, recovering small quantities of turquoise each day. Even poor, green-spotted, cracked, or thinly coated material found a market, being used in inexpensive rings, pipes, brasswork, and other ornaments; flaws in flat stones were sometimes concealed beneath gilded inscriptions. Geissel observes turquoise in various apparent stages of development, from a cream-colored chalky substance through harder intermediate material to green and blue stones, although much of the abundant material exposed in the workings was flawed or unstable in color. He describes the progressive appearance and enlargement of white spots in some stones and notes that faded turquoise temporarily recovered its color when moistened, a property exploited by sellers who concealed stones in their mouths before displaying them; Meshed dealers therefore retained stones for several days before purchasing them. High-quality turquoise had become expensive and was rapidly exported, particularly to Moscow for wealthy Russians, while other fine stones went to affluent Persians. Geissel concludes that systematic mining might still uncover good material and portrays the Nishapur deposits as extensive but inefficiently exploited at the beginning of the twentieth century.