gems, spinel, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, balas ruby, Kuh-i-Lal, lapis lazuli, Central Asia

Bubnova examines the historic Kuh-i-Lal (Kuhilal) workings in the Western Pamirs and their importance as a source of the celebrated Badakhshan lal, now identified with spinel. Drawing on archaeological evidence, historical sources, and earlier accounts of the mines, she reconstructs the history of exploitation of the deposit and discusses mining methods, the location and character of the workings, and the place of Kuh-i-Lal stones in the history of Badakhshan. The study relates the mine to references to lal in medieval sources and to the wider history of mineral extraction and trade in Central Asia, providing one of the principal historical studies of the famous Badakhshan spinel deposit.