Gemstone Inclusions Bibliography

First Published: 28 September 2026

Gemstone Inclusions Bibliography

Explore books, articles and historical sources on inclusions in gemstones in Four Treasures, the Lotus Gemology reference database. This bibliography brings together matching records from the collection, with publication details, abstracts and cover images where available.

Gemstone Inclusion References

The list below matches the terms inclusion or inclusions in the database's searchable fields. Some references discuss inclusions as part of a broader subject.

1,041–1,060 of 1,111 matching references

Rubis trapiches de Mong Hsu, Myanmar

Rubis trapiches de Mong Hsu, Myanmar

Trapiche rubies from Mong Hsu, Myanmar

Garnier, V., Ohnenstetter, D., Giuliani, G. and Schwarz, D. (2002)

Journal Article · Source: Revue de Gemmologie. A.F.G. · Issue: No. 144 · Pages: pp. 5–12 · Language: in French

Abstract
After a comparison of the geologic occurrences of trapiche emerald and trapiche ruby, and a discussion of the various theories proposed for their formation, this article presents the results of an investigation of the chemical compositions, and the solid and fluid inclusions, of six trapiche rubies from Mong Hsu. The study used advanced analytical techniques such as energy- and wavelength-dispersive spectrometry and “cold” cathodoluminescence. The authors identify 12 minerals not previously reported as inclusions in trapiche rubies or as components of their skeletal “arms.” The rubies show a chemical zonation that can be linked to variations in the chemical composition of the growth fluid. The chromium content, in particular, appears to be related to variations in the circulation of metasomatic fluids rich in REE (rare-earth element) fluorides.
Keywords
corundum, geology.11, inclusions.5, Myanmar (Burma).12, trapiche ruby, gems

View full reference

Nontraditional genetic classification of gem corundum deposits

Melnikov, E.P., Vasiliev, A.V. and M.A., V. (2002)

Journal Article · Source: Gemological Bulletin (Gemological Society of Russia) · Issue: No. 5 · Pages: pp. 7–18

Abstract
Based on mineralogic and geologic research on corundum occurrences in Russia, and published data on corundum localities occurring elsewhere, it is emphasized that regional metamorphism of different rock types (e.g., marble, gneiss) is the major factor controlling the formation of corundum deposits and determining the quality of the gems they contain. The chemical and physical properties of the metamorphic host rocks ultimately determine the characteristics of gem corundum. The sapphires from Kashmir and rubies from Myanmar, which formed in metamorphic environments, are cited as examples. The superb gems from these deposits had the appropriate chromophoric elements available during their formation, under the proper metamorphic conditions. Characteristic mineral inclusions are considered indicative of specific genetic types of corundum, and, for alluvial stones, the inclusions can be used to infer the origin of the gem corundum. Gem corundums originating from other geologic sources (e.g., igneous or metasomatic) are likely to be of lower quality than those of metamorphic origin.
Keywords
corundum, geology.11, gems

View full reference

Inclusões sólidas e fluidas da esmeralda de Campos Verdes, Estado de Goiás, Brasil Central: dados de microscopia eletrô- nica de varredura e de luz transmitida

Solid and fluid inclusions in emeralds from Campos Verdes, State of Goiás, Central Brazil: data from scanning electron microscopy and transmitted light.

Duarte, L., Pulz, G.M., Acauan, R.B., Brum, T.M.M. and Juchem, P.L. (2001)

Conference Paper · Source: XI Congreso Latinoamericano de Geología, III Congreso Uruguayo de Geología · Publisher: Sociedad Uruguaia de Gelogia · Pages: 1 CD–ROM · Language: in Portuguese

Keywords
gems, beryl, emerald, Brazil, inclusions

View full reference

LRM spectrum characteristic of filled glass in heat-treatment [sic] rubies

LRM spectrum characteristic of filled glass in heat-treatment [sic] rubies

Xi, B., Xu, R., Gao, H. and Guan, X. (2001)

Journal Article · Source: Journal of Gems & Gemmology · Volume: Vol. 3 · Issue: No. 4 · Pages: pp. 5–7

Abstract
Natural rubies are usually enhanced by heat treatment in a flux, and secondary glasses may be formed that then remain in the gems. These fluxes are commonly similar in appearance to glass inclusions found in flux-grown synthetic rubies. To differentiate between these two types of glasses, the chemical compositions and structural characteristics of both types were determined using electron microprobe and laser Raman microspectrometry (LRM) techniques.. Four types of glasses were found in the heat-treated natural rubies: sodic aluminosilicate glass, Na-P-Al glass, B-Na-Al glass, and aluminosilicate glass. Chemically, these glasses are significantly different from flux inclusions found in synthetic rubies. They differ not only in major elements, but also in trace elements. For example, Pb, W, Mo, and Bi present in synthetic rubies were not detectable in the glasses. The Raman spectra of the two materials also are distinct.TL
Keywords
corundum, treatments.6, inclusions.5, gems

View full reference

Zwölftstrahliger Sternsaphir aus Bang-kha-cha, Thailand

Zwölftstrahliger Sternsaphir aus Bang-kha-cha, Thailand

Twelve-rayed star sapphire from Bang-kha-cha, Thailand

Schmetzer, K. and Glas, M. (2001)

Journal Article · Source: Lapis · Volume: Vol. 26 · Issue: No. 11 · Pages: pp. 40–42, 54 · Language: in German

Abstract
After a brief overview of some basic facts concerning asterism, the characteristics of black star sapphires from Thailand are described. As in star corundums from other sources, these stars were found to be diffraction phenomena created by needles or lamellae of rutile or hematite-ilmenite. These inclusions can be oriented either parallel or perpendicular to the second-order prism faces.. Six-rayed star sapphires from Bang-kha-cha [also spelled Bang Kacha] show bluish white or, less commonly, “golden” yellow stars. The bluish white stars are caused by Ti-bearing hematite (as are similar black stars from Australia), whereas the nature of the mineral(s) forming the yellow stars is unknown. In the bluish white stars, the band of light (chatoyancy) can be oriented both parallel and perpendicular to the second-order prisms, but they are always parallel to these prisms in the yellow stars.. Rarely, both colors of stars are combined in the same specimen and form 12-rayed star sapphires. The authors studied nine such sapphires and found that the bluish white stars were always oriented perpendicular to the prism faces, whereas the yellow stars were parallel to these faces. The article is illustrated with four excellent photographs and two diagrams, which make the rather complicated phenomena easily understandable.
Keywords
corundum, inclusions.5, Thailand.12, Chantaburi, star sapphire, gems

View full reference

Fluid inclusion characteristics of sapphires from Thailand

Fluid inclusion characteristics of sapphires from Thailand

Srithai, B. and Rankin, A.H. (1999)

Journal Article · Source: Mineral Deposits: Processes to Processing, Proceedings of the 5th Biennial SGA Meeting and the 10th Quadrennial IAGOD Symposium, London · Pages: pp. 107–111

Abstract
Three main types of fluid inclusions occur in Bo Ploi sapphires: (1) vapor-rich CO₂ with a density up to about 0.86 g/cm³; (2) multiphase inclusions containing several daughter minerals, hypersaline brine, and a CO₂-rich vapor phase; and (3) (silicate?)-melt inclusions with immobile vapor bubbles in an isotropic or weakly anisotropic phase of low relief, with bubbles becoming mobile when heated above 800 °C. These observations suggest a magmatic origin for the sapphires, although they did not crystallize as phenocrysts within the basalts that transported them to the surface.
Keywords
corundum, sources.12, Thailand.12, Bo Ploi, inclusions.5, gems

View full reference

Gem corundums and zircons from the Primorye placers

Gem corundums and zircons from the Primorye placers

Ananyev, S.A., Ananyeva, T.A., Garanin, V.K. and Kudryavtseva, G.P. (1998)

Journal Article · Source: Zapiski RMO (Proceedings of the Russian Mineralogical Society) · Volume: Vol. 127 · Issue: No. 4 · Pages: pp. 120–124

Abstract
Descriptions are given of gem-quality sapphire and “hyacinth” zircon—and the associated chrome spinel, magnetite, and enstatite—found at Primorye in heavy-mineral concentrates that were ultimately derived from alkali basalts. Transparent blue, blue-green, green, and occasional multicolored sapphires are found as rounded pebbles (2 to 30 mm in size); some star sapphires are recovered. Chemical analyses and visible absorption spectra show that the sapphire coloration is related to the presence of Fe (0.72–1.75 wt.% FeO) and Ti (0.02–0.20 wt.% TiO₂). Inclusions of hercynite and ferrocolumbite were identified in some of these corundums. The zircon also is found as rounded pebbles (1 to 25 mm in size). They are transparent orange, orange-yellow, or brown-red, and become colorless on heating. Their chemical compositions correspond to those of the rare zircon variety naegite, with 4.59–6.14 wt.% Ta₂O₅, 3.22–3.59 wt.% Nb₂O₅, and 3.98–4.09 wt.% ThO₂. [Editor’s note: The terms hyacinth and naegite are not used in most modern gemology and mineralogy references in English.]
Keywords
corundum, sources.12, gems

View full reference

Tairus hydrothermal synthetic ruby

Tairus hydrothermal synthetic ruby

Qi, L. and Lin, S. (1998)

Journal Article · Source: China Gems · Volume: Vol. 7 · Issue: No. 1 · Pages: pp. 122–124

Abstract
Gemological investigations of Tairus hydrothermal synthetic ruby revealed characteristic microscopic features, including solid alloy inclusions consisting mainly of copper–iron alloys and wavy growth lines. Chemical analysis by microprobe showed that the chromium concentration in the area of the growth lines averaged 3.81 wt.% Cr₂O₃, as compared to 1.53 wt.% Cr₂O₃ in the remainder of the stone. Characteristic infrared absorption peaks are 3308, 3233, and 3186 cm⁻¹.
Keywords
corundum, synthetic corundum.7, gems

View full reference

Madagascar rubies debut

Madagascar rubies debut

Roskin, G. (1998)

Journal Article · Source: Jewelers’ Circular Keystone · Volume: Vol. 169 · Issue: No. 8 · Pages: pp. 40, 42

Abstract
Strongly saturated, slightly purplish red rubies that have yielded cut stones up to 3 ct have been found recently in Madagascar. Characteristic inclusions are rounded transparent crystals, “treacle” type graining, and nests of short, flat, acicular 60° needles. The rubies contain uneven, strong, parallel growth lines and fingerprint-like veils, similar to those seen in both Burmese and Thai material. The color is somewhat dark in tone, and the ruby fluoresces moderate red to long-wave UV radiation. A dealer in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, is distributing the faceted material in the U.S.
Keywords
corundum, sources.12, Madagascar.12, gems

View full reference

Emerald mineralization and metasomatism of amphibolite, Khaltaro granitic pegmatite-hydrothermal vein system, Haramosh Mountains, northern Pakistan

Emerald mineralization and metasomatism of amphibolite, Khaltaro granitic pegmatite-hydrothermal vein system, Haramosh Mountains, northern Pakistan

Laurs, B.M., Dilles, J.H. and Snee, L.W. (1996)

Journal Article · Source: Canadian Mineralogist · Volume: Vol. 34 · Issue: No. 6, December · Pages: pp. 1253–1286

Abstract
Emerald mineralization is found within 0.1- to 1-m-thick hydrothermal veins and granitic pegmatites cutting amphibolite within the Nanga Parbat-Haramosh massif, in northern Pakistan. The amphibolite forms a sill-like body within garnet-mica schist, and both are part of a regional layered gneiss unit of Proterozoic (?) age. The 40 Ar/ 39 Ar data for muscovite from a pegmatite yield a plateau age of 9.13+ or -0.04 Ma. Muscovite from mica schist and hornblende from amphibolite yield disturbed spectra with interpreted ages of 9 to 10 Ma and more than 225 Ma, respectively, which indicate that peak Tertiary metamorphism reached 325 to 550 degrees C prior to 10 Ma. Pegmatites were emplaced after peak metamorphism during this interval and are older than pegmatites farther south in the massif. At Khaltaro, simply zoned albite-rich miarolitic pegmatites and hydrothermal veins containing various proportions of quartz, albite, tourmaline, muscovite, and beryl are associated with a 1- to 3-m-thick heterogeneous leucogranite sill, that is locally albitized. The pegmatites likely crystallized at 650 to 600 degrees C at pressures of less than 2 kbar. Crystals of emerald form within thin (0.20, 0.54-0.89 wt%), to pale blue beryl (< or =0.07, 0.10-0.63%), to colorless beryl (
Keywords
gems, beryl, aquamarine, morganite, inclusions, Pakistan

View full reference

Crystal chemistry of barian enrichment in micas from metasomatized inclusions in serpentine, Motagua fault zone, Guatemala

Crystal chemistry of barian enrichment in micas from metasomatized inclusions in serpentine, Motagua fault zone, Guatemala

Harlow, G.E. (1995)

Journal Article · Source: European Journal of Mineralogy · Volume: Vol. 7 · Issue: No. 4 · Pages: pp. 775–789

Abstract
Abstract One to three coexisting micas with relatively high barium content, particularly in grain rims where coexisting celsian or hyalophane are present, have been found in jadeitites, albitites, and micaceous rocks from a serpentinite-matrix mélange along the Motagua Valley of Guatemala. Barian phengitic muscovite and/or phlogopite, with 0.4 to over 4 wt.% BaO (± paragonite), are found in the jadeitites. Barian phengite, from 1.2 to 8.9 wt.% BaO (0.25 cations per interlayer site), dominates in mica-rich rocks where celsian, cymrite, hyalophane and barite are minor but common. Compared to other reports of barian micas coexisting with Ba phases, the BaO values here are lower, probably due to low contents of Cr, Ti and Mn, lower formation temperatures and higher formation pressures. Barium content in phengite always exceeds that in coexisting phlogopite (Ph/Phl Dᴮᵃ = 1.2 to 9.5), which is likely due to the steric effects of high Mg and Si content in phengite and low Fe, Mn and Ti in phlogopite. Coexisting paragonite and late-stage preiswerkite have low but not always negligible barium content, as high as 0.3 wt.% BaO. The exchange Ba[4]AlK⁻¹Si⁻¹ is most commonly observed for zoning of Ba in micas. However, correlated phengite exchange, [6]Mg[4]Si[6]Al⁻¹[4]Al⁻¹, in certain rocks leads to an effective Ba⁶K⁻¹[6]Al⁻¹ exchange, which indicates a positive P/T growth trajectory and a pressure-volume limitation for increased tetrahedral aluminum in the mica structure.
Keywords
gems, jade, jadeite, fei cui, Guatemala, Mesoamerica, Costa Rica, Mexico, geology

View full reference

Über den Goldenen Schmuck der Spätantike

Über den Goldenen Schmuck der Spätantike

The golden jewelry of Late Antiquity

Deppart-Lippitz, B. (1995)

Book Section · Source: Die Schraube zwischen Macht und Pracht: Das Gewinde in der Antike [The Screw between power and Splendor: The Thread in Antiquity] · Publisher: Museum Würth und Archäologisches Landesmuseum · Pages: pp.  113–140 · Language: in German with English absracts

Abstract
On the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the Würth Group in 1995, a unique exhibition on the history of the screw and the thread in antiquity was presented for the first time through a joint effort by the Museum Würth in Künzelsau-Gaisbach and the Archaeological State Museum of Baden-Württemberg. The exhibition was supported by over twenty museums in Europe and the USA with precious Late Antique jewelry exhibits. Special thanks are due to co-initiator Dr. Rüdiger Krause, director of the Archaeological State Museum and president of the State Heritage Office of Baden-Württemberg, to Prof. Dr. Dieter Planck, and especially to Reinhold Würth and all the scholars involved in the research project, for making this exhibition possible, which has now been crowned with a scholarly publication on a topic previously neglected in general cultural history. The exhibition’s preparation and the development of the volume were preceded by intensive and thorough research on the topic of threads in antiquity. This involved not only ancient threading techniques based on archaeological remains or written sources attesting to such techniques, but also the political and social conditions of Late Antiquity, which were particularly defined by rank insignia and prestige objects (fibulae, arm rings, bracelets, pectorals, pectoral crosses, belts, etc.) using screw fastenings. The richly illustrated and high-quality volume, featuring numerous (including full-page) color and black-and-white images, drawings, and maps, is structured as follows: after the introductory foreword by Reinhold Würth (pp. 7–13) and the exhibition introduction by Dieter Planck (pp. 14–22), the main thematic section is divided into four specific areas: Rüdiger Krause writes on “The Thread in Antiquity” (pp. 23–54), Astrid Schürmann on “The Transmission of Ancient Authors” (pp. 55–76), Barbara Theune-Großkopf on “Onion-Head Fibulae and Their Wearers – Jewelry and Rank Insignia” (pp. 77–112), and Barbara Deppert-Lippitz on “The Golden Jewelry of Late Antiquity” (pp. 113–140). A special feature of the volume is the inclusion of English and French summaries preceding each article, along with trilingual captions (German, English, French) for all images.
Keywords
gems, ancient gemology, ancient jewelry, early metallurgy, collection, comparanda, catalog

View full reference

Unusual synthetic

Unusual synthetic

Ramchandran, K.T. and Panjikar, J. (1994)

Journal Article · Source: Indian Gemmologist · Volume: Vol. 4 · Issue: No. 3/4 · Pages: p. 3

Keywords
corundum, synthetic corundum.7, gems

View full reference

Exploring the Literature of Gemstone Inclusions

The literature of gemstone inclusions covers identification, origin determination, treatments, synthesis, mineral inclusions, fluid inclusions and other internal features of natural and synthetic gems.

For a curated selection of important sources, read Inclusions in Gemstones — Hyperion Literature Sources.

About Four Treasures

Four Treasures is Lotus Gemology's freely accessible gemological reference database. Use the full database to search by author, title or keyword and explore literature on gemology, mineralogy, jewelry and related fields. Where available, hyperlinks on titles may lead directly to the full publication.

Search the Complete Four Treasures Database