corundum, ruby, quality.10, gems

Antel recounts the celebrated theft and recovery of the DeLong Star Ruby, one of the notable gems of the American Museum of Natural History, stolen from the J. P. Morgan Hall of Gems in New York in 1964 together with the Star of India and other valuable stones. The narrative follows the robbery, investigation, negotiations for the ruby’s return, and payment of a ransom that ultimately led to its recovery. Written as a true-crime account rather than a gemological study, the book provides a detailed contemporary history of the DeLong Ruby and the circumstances surrounding one of the most spectacular gemstone thefts of the twentieth century.

gems, jade, pyroxene jade, fei cui, Guatemala, Mesoamerica, Nicaragua, Mexico, Honduras, Costa Rica, archaeogemology, gold, turquoise

Until recent times we knew little about the remarkable heritage of the ancient Mexican civilizations. Now, thanks to the enthusiasm of pioneer explorers and the still continuing labors of archaeologists (including the author of this book), the art and architecture of the early inhabitants of Mexico and its neighboring regions have been reclaimed from the jungle and, after centuries of neglect, revealed to the modern world. The origins of these peoples, however, are still mysterious. The first settlers are believed to have travelled from Asia across the Bering Strait into America thousands of years ago, and to have spread southward. But it was not until the rise of the Olmecs (whose golden age was between 800 and 400 B.C.) that urban societies developed in the region. Dr. Bernal, who is Director of the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico, therefore opens his historical account with the Olmecs; he ends with the extinction of their civilization in 1519, when the last Aztec emperor, Moctezuma, was tricked into submission by the Spanish invaders. Dr. Bernal explains how the artistic creations of these strange, sophisticated peoples are closely related to their social structure and to the religious beliefs which dominated their lives. The author has also written detailed commentaries on the magnificent photographs, whose subjects were chosen by him and which were taken by Mrs. Irmgard Groth, a gifted photographer whose special field is Mexican archaeology. In these plates we see the extraordinary sculpture of the Olmecs; the Pyramid of the Moon of Teotihuacan; the Maya temples of Palenque; the Pyramid of the Niches of Tajín on the Gulf Coast; the temples at the great city of Chichén Itzá; the gold ornaments of the Mixtecs at Monte Albán; the temple carved by the Aztecs out of the cliff side at Malinalco; and many other buildings and artifacts, the surviving testimonials—sometimes exquisite, sometimes awe-inspiring—to the greatness of a long-vanished culture.

gems, lapis lazuli, Afghanistan, history of gemology, gem trade, Central Asia, Egypt

There appears to be a striking resemblance between the use of lapis lazuli in Iraq and that in Egypt during the Predynastic period and the early dynasties. Lapis lazuli, among other exotic materials, is well-known during the Gerzean period in Egypt. There is hardly a cemetery of the period that has not produced lazuli beads, from Gerzeh itself, in the north, to Bahan, just south of the first cataract. It was, however, not in common use; at Naqada itself, where some 2000 graves make up the largest predynastic cemetery known, lapis lazuli was found in only II graves. Its first appearance dates from early in the Gerzean period, in Petrie's S.D. 40. Its associations during this period are interesting. Lapis lazuli beads were strung together with an imported Mesopotamian cylinder seal found in grave T29 at Naqada. Lazuli fly-amulets form another link with Iraq. Lazuli beads were found in grave 836 at Naqada (dating from the end of this period) with a copper dagger blade quite unlike the other predynastic specimens known; similar daggers dating from about this period have been found outside Egypt. Finally, it is often found in association with gold, but so far not with silver. The general impression is that lapis lazuli is found in richer graves, in association with other foreign elements.

gems, lapis lazuli, Afghanistan, amazonite, turquoise, history of gemology, gem trade, Central Asia

The long-standing importance of lapis lazuli in Mesopotamia is evident from its early importation during the Late Ubaid period, likely marking the first time humans possessed the wealth and leisure to seek out luxury items. Prior to this, trade had been limited to essential materials like flint and obsidian for toolmaking. However, by the time of Gawra XIII, a broad luxury trade had begun, introducing beads made of turquoise, amethyst, agate, jadeite, beryl, and lapis lazuli. While most of these stones are found on the Iranian plateau, there is no confirmed source of lapis lazuli in Iran. The most plausible source of the early Gawran lapis is the Badakhshan mines, located approximately 1,500 miles east across deserts and mountains. One of the primary motivations for studying lapis lazuli has been the tradition that it originates solely from Badakhshan. Although this exclusive claim remains unproven, Badakhshan is still considered the only likely source. This suggests that as early as around 3500  B.C., trade routes connected ancient Iraq with distant Afghanistan, offering compelling evidence of the vast reach of early trade and communication networks.

corundum, ruby, sapphire, crown jewels, quality.10, gems

Young presents a popular illustrated account of the personal jewelry of Queen Elizabeth II, describing important pieces in the royal collection and the occasions and individuals associated with them. The book discusses tiaras, necklaces, brooches, bracelets, earrings, and other ornaments, including jewels inherited from earlier members of the royal family as well as gifts received by the Queen. Particular attention is given to diamonds, pearls, and major colored gemstones and to the historical provenance of notable pieces. Rather than serving as a technical gemological catalogue, the volume places the jewels within the history of the British royal family and their use at coronations, state occasions, official visits, and other ceremonial events.

corundum, Australia.12, quality.10, gems

V.G.C. Norwood describes personal investigations of sapphire, opal and agate resources in Queensland during a prolonged drought, combining a prospecting travel narrative with observations on recovery methods, working conditions and commercial possibilities. Travelling alone from Victoria in a motor caravan on a planned journey of approximately 8,000 miles, he initially visits Anakie and The Willows before proceeding towards the opal districts around Winton, Opalton and Horse Creek. Commercial interest in agate is illustrated by a cutting and polishing factory at Cairns, which manufactures jewellery and industrial components; the author reports obtaining mineral rights near Cairns and a guaranteed purchase price for agate delivered to the factory. The main discussion concerns sapphire mining at Anakie, where he describes selecting promising ridges and former creek beds, clearing rocks and timber, removing overburden and excavating the gravel wash. Gravel is processed without water in a steel-mesh sieve suspended from a wooden tripod, shaken vigorously to remove fine material, then examined by hand after larger stones and clay lumps have been removed. Zircon, garnet and amethyst are also sought in the residue. Norwood emphasizes the physical demands of this work, the difficulty of recognizing sapphires in dry concentrates, and the practical constraints imposed by heat, scarce water, isolation and hazardous wildlife. He reports finding more than sixty fine sapphires at Anakie in two weeks, including four blue stones exceeding five carats each, alongside abundant green and yellow material, much of it flawed and considered more suitable for industrial use. Large Queensland sapphires, including star stones and specimens carved with portraits of American presidents, illustrate the district’s historical productivity. Despite continued production from privately owned mines and opportunities for independent prospectors, the author regards recovery methods as antiquated. He proposes using bulldozers to expose extensive areas of wash and mechanical shakers to reduce manual processing, while retaining dry recovery because of water shortages. The concluding discussion introduces opal prospecting and the diversity of opal appearances and occurrences, including material in ironstone boulders, fossils and shells. Contrasting Queensland deposits with better-known New South Wales fields, Norwood expresses confidence that substantial areas remain insufficiently explored. The account presents renewed prospecting and selective mechanization as potential means of extending production from established and undiscovered Australian gemfields.

gems, jade, pyroxene jade, fei cui, Guatemala, Mesoamerica, Nicaragua, Mexico, Honduras, Costa Rica, archaeogemology, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Maya, Mayan, Olmec, Aztec, sculpture

In the steaming rain forest of Mexico and Guatemala the ruins of the ancient Mayan empire bear silent witness of a civilization that flourished hundreds of years before Columbus came to America. More appealing to the modern mind than their Aztec and Inca contemporaries, the Maya Indians are also more mysterious and their way of life more paradoxical. Each year adds to the mass of published material about them, but the central riddle of their rise and decline remains unsolved. Miss Benson guides the reader into the Maya world with an infectious enthusiasm. Technologically a stone-age people, the Maya knew nothing of metal tools or weapons, and lacked both wheel and plow, yet they reached a high level of intellectual and aesthetic sophistication. By A.D. 600 these sociable agriculturalists who—unlike the Aztecs—did not practice mass human sacrifice, had conquered arithmetic, astronomy and calendric development. They had developed a form of writing, and they had a broad practical knowledge of medicine. Many modern sciences have helped to fill out our picture of the Maya world. Miss Benson takes the reader on a fascinating archaeological voyage, as she describes the collaboration of geologists, botanists, and biologists, linguistic experts, architects, and anthropologists; road builders and chicle gatherers have also contributed. In the deserted jungle center of Bonampak, found by chicleros in 1946, superb wall paintings show scenes of Maya life. At its height the empire, held together by a stable caste system, religious beliefs, and a lively trade in cacao, jade, rubber, cotton, and mahogany, stretched throughout the Yucatán Peninsula and the adjacent areas of Mexico and Guatemala. “A Maya city in its heyday,” writes Miss Benson, “must have been almost unbelievably impressive, with its temple-topped pyramids, its vast palaces raised on platforms, its terraces and towers and its rich display of sculptures.” The ruins of Chichén Itzá, in Yucatán, which boast a sacred pool and a ball court, are perhaps most famous. But the Department of Petén in Guatemala contains the heart of the Classic Maya area. Miss Benson locates the main sites of Maya ruins, and tells those hoping to visit them how to get there. Her absorbing account focuses on the Classic period of Maya culture, between A.D. 300 and 900, but it includes much information on the earlier life of the Maya and on their vicissitudes before and during the Spanish conquest.

gems, ancient gemology, ancient trade, commerce, historical ancient reference

Strabo (ca. 64 BCE to ca. 25 CE), an Asiatic Greek of Amasia in Pontus, studied at Nysa and after 44 BCE at Rome. He became a keen traveller who saw a large part of Italy, various near eastern regions including the Black Sea, various parts of Asia Minor, Egypt as far as Ethiopia, and parts of Greece. He was a long time in Alexandria where he no doubt studied mathematics, astronomy, and history. Strabo's historical work is lost, but his most important Geography in seventeen books has survived. After two introductory books, numbers 3 and 4 deal with Spain and Gaul, 5 and 6 with Italy and Sicily, 7 with north and east Europe, 8–10 with Greek lands, 11–14 with the main regions of Asia and with Asia Minor, 15 with India and Iran, 16 with Assyria, Babylonia, Syria, and Arabia, 17 with Egypt and Africa. In outline he follows the great mathematical geographer Eratosthenes, but adds general descriptions of separate countries including physical, political, and historical details. A sequel to his historical memoirs, Geography is planned apparently for public servants rather than students—hence the accounts of physical features and of natural products. On the mathematical side it is an invaluable source of information about Eratosthenes, Hipparchus, and Posidonius.

gems, corundum, inclusions.5, Sri Lanka.12, garnet, inclusions

Solid mineral inclusions in six corundum specimens and four almandine garnets collected by the author from gem gravels in the Ratnapura district of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) were investigated using optical examination and X-ray powder diffraction. Their collection establishes their geographical provenance, although the deposits are secondary. The pebbles were partly faceted to permit refractometer measurements, microscopic examination and access to inclusions intersecting the surface. Inclusions were photographed before material was removed, and specific gravities were determined hydrostatically. Powder diffraction photographs were obtained using iron radiation and a camera 114.6 mm in diameter, enabling identification from very small quantities of material where transparency, crystal size or orientation prevented reliable optical determination. In corundum, diffraction patterns identified magnesium spinel, pyrrhotite, apatite, phlogopite, rutile and corundum itself. Spinel occurred as irregular reddish-brown material and as dark octahedral crystals; a thin surface coating gave some transparent crystals a misleading metallic appearance. Pyrrhotite formed strongly magnetic, bronze-yellow grains, while phlogopite occurred as strongly dichroic brown plates. Apatite commonly formed colourless hexagonal prisms, and abundant apatite was suggested as the cause of unusually low specific gravities in two corundums. Rutile detected in material removed from one specimen was probably associated with its silk. The identification of corundum inclusions within corundum required repeated preparation: possible contamination by the host and an abrasive was resolved by isolating an entire inclusion, whose diffraction pattern confirmed corundum. A brownish-red powdery inclusion remained unidentified, although its diffraction data showed similarities to halloysite and serpentine-group minerals. In almandine garnet, apatite, rutile and muscovite were identified. Apatite displayed markedly variable appearances, including rounded, apparently isometric grains, elongated hexagonal prisms and a large inclusion resembling calcite with rhombohedral cleavage. These examples demonstrate the limitations of identification from morphology alone. Including additional specimens outside the detailed descriptions, apatite had been found in three corundums, nine garnets and one spinel; all gave identical powder patterns assigned to chlorine-bearing hydroxylapatites. Additional observations included calcite in two rubies and sphalerite in two garnets. Apatite and spinel are considered relatively common inclusions, but whether the reported mineral associations are diagnostic of Ceylon provenance remains unresolved and requires further investigation.

corundum, sapphire, quality.10, gems